Journal of Modern Power Systems and Clean Energy

Highlights

Smart Grid Origins, Definitions, Technologies, and Emerging Trends: A Power Community Perspective
This paper captures an engaging—and at times heated—Power-Globe (PG) discussion of evolving definitions of smart grid technologies. The exchange took place between December 2024 and January 2025. The primary objective of this paper is to clarify some of the ambiguities surrounding the term “smart grid” over the past two decades, as highlighted in the spirited PG debate. “Smart grids” have sometimes been advocated as a panacea to resolve the tension between competing objectives for the provision of electricity (specifically, making it reliable, clean, and affordable). This paper examines the term “smart grid” in terms of raw technical functionalities, applications, and use cases, some of which may get closer than others to meeting the aspirational promises. While smart technology should expand our menu of options, it will not absolve us of the need to make hard decisions.
Current and Future Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Power Systems: A Critical Appraisal
This paper provides an overview of the application potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in power systems and points towards prospective developments in the fields of AI that are promised to play a transformative role in the evolution of power systems. Among the basic requirements, also imposed by regulation in some places, are trustworthiness and interpretability. Large language models, foundation models, as well as neuro-symbolic and compound AI models, appear to be the most promising emerging AI paradigms. Finally, the trajectories along which the future of AI in power systems might evolve are discussed, and conclusions are drawn.
Co-optimization of Carbon Reduction and Carbon Sequestration in Power Sector Toward Carbon Neutrality
Planning the low-carbon transition pathway of the power sector to meet the carbon neutrality goal poses a significant challenge due to the complex interplay of temporal, spatial, and cross-domain factors. A novel framework is proposed, grounded in the cyber-physical-social system in energy (CPSSE) and whole-reductionism thinking (WRT), incorporating a tailored mathematical model and optimization method to formalize the co-optimization of carbon reduction and carbon sequestration in the power sector. Using the carbon peaking and carbon neutrality transition of China as a case study, clustering method is employed to construct a diverse set of strategically distinct carbon trajectories. For each trajectory, the evolution of the generation mix and the deployment pathways of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies are analyzed, identifying the optimal transition pathway based on the criterion of minimizing cumulative economic costs. Further, by comparing non-fossil energy substitution and CCS retrofitting in thermal power, the analysis high-lights the potential for co-optimization of carbon reduction and carbon sequestration. The results demonstrate that leveraging the spatiotemporal complementarities between the two can substantially lower the economic cost of achieving carbon neutrality, providing insights for integrated decarbonization strategies in power system planning.
Evolving Symbolic Model for Dynamic Security Assessment in Power Systems
In a high-risk sector, such as power system, transparency and interpretability are key principles for effectively deploying artificial intelligence (AI) in control rooms. Therefore, this paper proposes a novel methodology, the evolving symbolic model (ESM), which is dedicated to generating highly interpretable data-driven models for dynamic security assessment (DSA), namely in system security classification (SC) and the definition of preventive control actions. The ESM uses simulated annealing for a data-driven evolution of a symbolic model template, enabling different cooperative learning schemes between humans and AI. The Madeira Island power system is used to validate the application of the ESM for DSA. The results show that the ESM has a classification accuracy comparable to pruned decision trees (DTs) while boasting higher global inter-pretability. Moreover, the ESM outperforms an operator-defined expert system and an artificial neural network in defining preventive control actions.
Consideration on Present and Future of Battery Energy Storage System to Unlock Battery Value
To address environmental concerns, there has been a rapid global surge in integrating renewable energy sources into power grids. However, this transition poses challenges to grid stability. A prominent solution to this challenge is the adoption of battery energy storage systems (BESSs). Many countries are actively increasing BESS deployment and developing new BESS technologies. Nevertheless, a crucial initial step is conducting a comprehensive analysis of BESS capabilities and subsequently formulating policies. We analyze the current roles of BESS and review existing BESS policies worldwide, which focuses on key markets in Asia, Europe, and the U.S.. Using collected survey data, we propose a comprehensive three-phase framework for policy formulation, providing insights into future policy development directions.
A Comprehensive Review on Charging Topologies and Power Electronic Converter Solutions for Electric Vehicles
Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming more popular worldwide due to environmental concerns, fuel security, and price volatility. The performance of EVs relies on the energy stored in their batteries, which can be charged using either AC (slow) or DC (fast) chargers. Additionally, EVs can also be used as mobile power storage devices using vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology. Power electronic converters (PECs) have a constructive role in EV applications, both in charging EVs and in V2G. Hence, this paper comprehensively investigates the state of the art of EV charging topologies and PEC solutions for EV applications. It examines PECs from the point of view of their classifications, configurations, control approaches, and future research prospects and their impacts on power quality. These can be classified into various topologies: DC-DC converters, AC-DC converters, DC-AC converters, and AC-AC converters. To address the limitations of traditional DC-DC converters such as switching losses, size, and high-electromagnetic interference (EMI), resonant converters and multiport converters are being used in high-voltage EV applications. Additionally, power-train converters have been modified for high-efficiency and reliability in EV applications. This paper offers an overview of charging topologies, PECs, challenges with solutions, and future trends in the field of the EV charging station applications.
Digital Twin Empowered PV Power Prediction
The accurate prediction of photovoltaic (PV) power generation is significant to ensure the economic and safe operation of power systems. To this end, the paper establishes a new digital twin (DT) empowered PV power prediction framework that is capable of ensuring reliable data transmission and employing the DT to achieve high accuracy of power prediction. With this framework, considering potential data contamination in the collected PV data, a generative adversarial network is employed to restore the historical dataset, which offers a prerequisite to ensure accurate mapping from the physical space to the digital space. Further, a new DT-empowered PV power prediction method is proposed. Therein, we model a DT that encompasses a digital physical model for reflecting the physical operation mechanism and a neural network model (i.e., a parallel network of convolution and bidirectional long short-term memory model) for capturing the hidden spatiotemporal features. The proposed method enables the use of the DT to take advantages of the digital physical model and the neural network model, resulting in enhanced prediction accuracy. Finally, a real dataset is conducted to assess the effectiveness of the proposed method.
Grid Strength Assessment Method for Evaluating Small-Signal Synchronization Stability of Grid-Following and Grid-Forming Converters Integrated Systems
Oscillations caused by small-signal instability have been widely observed in AC grids with grid-following (GFL) and grid-forming (GFM) converters. The generalized short-circuit ratio is commonly used to assess the strength of GFL converters when integrated with weak AC systems at risk of oscillation. This paper provides the grid strength assessment method to evaluate the small-signal synchronization stability of GFL and GFM converters integrated systems. First, the admittance and impedance matrices of the GFL and GFM converters are analyzed to identify the frequency bands associated with negative damping in oscillation modes dominated by heterogeneous synchronization control. Secondly, based on the interaction rules between the short-circuit ratio and the different oscillation modes, an equivalent circuit is proposed to simplify the grid strength assessment through the topological transformation of the AC grid. The risk of sub-synchronization and low-frequency oscillations, influenced by GFL and GFM converters, is then reformulated as a semi-definite programming (SDP) model, incorporating the node admittance matrix and grid-connected device capacities. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated through a case analysis.
Optimal Operation with Dynamic Partitioning Strategy for Centralized Shared Energy Storage Station with Integration of Large-scale Renewable Energy
As renewable energy continues to be integrated into the grid, energy storage has become a vital technique supporting power system development. To effectively promote the efficiency and economics of energy storage, centralized shared energy storage (SES) station with multiple energy storage batteries is developed to enable energy trading among a group of entities. In this paper, we propose the optimal operation with dynamic partitioning strategy for the centralized SES station, considering the day-ahead demands of large-scale renewable energy power plants. We implement a multi-entity cooperative optimization operation model based on Nash bargaining theory. This model is decomposed into two subproblems: the operation profit maximization problem with energy trading and the leasing payment bargaining problem. The distributed alternating direction multiplier method (ADMM) is employed to address the subproblems separately. Simulations reveal that the optimal operation with a dynamic partitioning strategy improves the tracking of planned output of renewable energy entities, enhances the actual utilization rate of energy storage, and increases the profits of each participating entity. The results confirm the practicality and effectiveness of the strategy.
Reducing Blackout Risk by Segmenting European Power Grid with HVDC Lines
The utilization of high-voltage direct current (HVDC) lines for the segmentation of the European power grid has been demonstrated to be a highly effective strategy for the mitigation of the risk of cascading blackouts. In this study, an accurate and efficient method for determining the optimal power flow through HVDC lines is presented, with the objective of minimizing load shedding. The proposed method is applied to two distinct scenarios: first, the segmentation of the power grid along the Pyrenees, with the objective of segmenting the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe; and second, the segmentation of the power grid into Eastern and Western Europe, approximately in half. In both scenarios, the method effectively reduces the size of blackouts impacting both sides of the HVDC lines, resulting in a 46% and 67% reduction in total blackout risk, respectively. Furthermore, we have estimated the cost savings from risk reduction and the expenses associated with converting conventional lines to HVDC lines. Our findings indicate that segmenting the European power grid with HVDC lines is economically viable, particularly for segmenting the Iberian Peninsula, due to its favorable cost-risk reduction ratio.

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A Review on Deep Learning-based Electrical Load Forecasting: From Perspectives of Learning Paradigms and Foundation Models

Pengfei Zhao, Weihao Hu, Di Cao, Zhaochen Dong, Yaqi Zeng, Qi Huang, Zhe Chen

2026,14(3):791-809, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2025.000740

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Electrical load forecasting (ELF) plays a critical role in the planning and operation of modern power systems. As energy demand patterns grow more complex, deep learning (DL) techniques, and more recently, foundation models (FMs), have emerged as powerful tools for modeling temporal dynamics and integrating heterogeneous inputs. In practice, the effectiveness of these models depends not only on their architectures but also on the learning paradigms that determine how they are trained, adapted, and deployed. However, most existing surveys focus solely on network architectures, with limited attention to the underlying paradigms. To this end, we survey the DL-based ELF from perspectives of learning paradigms and FMs. It organizes the literature into four orthogonal paradigms: task-tuned offline learning, adaptive DL, collaborative DL, and general-purpose DL. This paradigm-centric perspective enables a unified understanding of how DL methods evolve to meet the challenges of ELF. It also provides a natural framework to incorporate FMs as the latest advancement in this trajectory. Finally, key challenges are provided, and research opportunities are highlighted to inform future directions.
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Large Language Model Applications in Power Systems: A Comprehensive Review and Outlook

Xiyuan Zhou, Yan Xu, Junhua Zhao, Rui Zhang

2026,14(3):773-790, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2025.000760

Abstract: (231) HTML (34) PDF (56.80 KKB) (409)

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Modern power systems are evolving due to increasing penetration of renewable energy sources, deeper participation of the demand side, and widespread deployment of advanced information and digital technologies. As a result, system operation and control are becoming increasingly challenging. Large language models (LLMs), with their advanced capabilities in semantic understanding and knowledge reasoning, offer a promising tool to support the operation, control, analysis, and decision-making of power systems. This paper provides a comprehensive review of LLM applications in power systems, encompassing four representative application domains: power grid, power equipment, demand side, and electricity market and policy-making. Based on the functional roles and implementations of LLMs, four major application strategies are identified: model adaptation, capability enhancement, multimodality integration, and multi-agent coordination. In addition, the core functions, representative methods, and evolving trends of LLM applications are reviewed across different domains. Finally, key challenges in applying LLMs to power systems are discussed, and future research directions are outlined with regard to ensuring physical feasibility, enhancing data efficiency and privacy, and improving interpretability and rationality.
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Transient Stability Analysis of Power Systems with Multiple Grid-forming Voltage Source Converters Using Reduced-order Modeling Method

Lei Chen, Tianhao Wen, Yuqing Lin, Yang Liu, Yingjie Qin, Qing-Hua Wu

2026,14(2):466-477, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.001166

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The traditional power system dominated by synchronous generators is gradually evolving into a modern power system featured by high-penetrated renewable energy. As a key technology for high-penetrated renewable energy, the grid-forming voltage source converter (GFM-VSC) has received increasing attention. However, the large-disturbance stability analysis of power systems with multiple GFM-VSCs is still a challenging problem due to various limitations of existing methods, including huge computational burden and difficulty in considering network losses. This paper is intended to address these issues from the perspective of reduced-order modeling and domain of attraction (DA) estimation. The innovations involve three aspects. First, the reduced-order modeling method for power systems with multiple GFM-VSCs is proposed using the standard dual-time-scale model in singular perturbation theory. Second, an expanding annular domain (EAD) algorithm is developed to estimate the DA with an entire boundary to analyze the large-disturbance stability of power systems. Third, the conditions of using the reduced-order modeling method based on singular perturbation theory have been clarified. The validity of the reduced-order modeling method is illustrated on a modified 39-bus system with 10 GFM-VSCs.
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Control Performance and Stability Analysis of Frequency Estimator in Grid-forming Synchronization Control

Jaume Girona-Badia, Juan Carlos Olives-Camps, Vinicius Albernaz Lacerda, Eduardo Prieto-Araujo, Oriol Gomis-Bellmunt

2026,14(2):430-441, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2025.000144

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This paper analyzes the effect of a frequency estimator in a grid-forming (GFM) synchronization control on the stability and control performance. GFM control for power converters has been proposed as a promising solution to enhance the stability and resilience of electrical systems dominated by power electronics. However, no consensus has been reached on the control structure for this operation mode. Moreover, the interactions between different GFM schemes and frequency estimators are not completely defined in the literature. In this paper, the effect of adding a frequency estimator to the two main industry-class synchronization controls, i.e., droop and virtual synchronous machine (VSM), is studied. Additionally, different AC voltage measurement points, tuning, and structures of frequency estimator are considered. Two distinct analyses are performed to discuss the characteristics of different configurations① an analytical study on the control performance of different configurations, and ② a small-signal analysis to ensure system stability. Finally, the results are validated using dynamic simulations, followed by a discussion. This paper concludes that the droop should be avoided when applying a frequency estimator, and other structures such as the VSM are more desirable.
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A Review on Electricity-hydrogen Coupling System: Methodologies, Applications, and Prospects

Jianlin Li, Zelin Shi, Zhonghao Liang

2026,14(2):399-415, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2025.000608

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With the increasing integration of large-scale renewable energy (RE) sources into power systems, electricity-hydrogen coupling system has emerged as a transformative solution through flexible energy conversion and complementary utilization of electricity and hydrogen. It effectively addresses structural challenges in conventional energy systems regarding spatiotemporal regulation, environmental constraints, and supply security while creating significant opportunities in technological innovation and industrial transformation, accelerating the transition from traditional fossil fuels to clean energy. This paper reviews the strengths and limitations of the electricity-hydrogen coupling system in production, storage, and utilization in scenarios of high RE penetration. It examines the architectural frameworks and current development status of key technologies within the electricity-hydrogen coupling system, and builds on their operational characteristics across multiple timescales to analyze both short-term energy balance control and medium- and long-term optimal dispatch. This paper further investigates representative application scenarios, systematically evaluates demonstration projects deployed, and critically analyzes prevailing challenges alongside prospective research pathways.
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Review on Emerging Collection and Transmission Technologies for Large-scale Offshore Wind Power

Huangqing Xiao, Huichen Gan, Ying Huang, Lidong Zhang, Ping Yang

2026,14(2):383-398, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2025.000269

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The rapid development of large-scale offshore wind power (OWP) calls for more cost-effective and reliable collection and transmission technologies. This paper explores three emerging collection technologies: medium-frequency alternating current (AC) collection, direct current (DC) collection, and AC collection without substation; and three transmission technologies: voltage source converter-based high-voltage direct current based on compact modular multilevel converters (MMCs), diode rectifier unit (DRU) based high-voltage direct current (DRU-HVDC), and high-voltage direct current (HVDC) based on hybrid converters. It systematically reviews recent research advancements in these technologies, analyzes critical technical challenges, and identifies key future development trends, providing practical insights to guide the design and optimization of OWP projects. At the collection level, a higher frequency reduces the size of critical equipment in offshore platforms but also leads to increased cable costs. DC offshore wind farms offer advantages such as lower cable costs. However, the design of high-power DC transformers presents challenges. At the transmission level, the size and weight of MMCs can be minimized through topology improvement and control optimization. The practical deployment of DRUs and HVDC systems depends on the technology maturity of grid-forming wind turbines. Moreover, critical aspects of hybrid converters such as capacity design, coordinated control, and stability analysis require further in-depth investigation.
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Current and Future Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Power Systems: A Critical Appraisal

Ricardo J. Bessa, Spyros Chatzivasileiadis, Ning Zhang, Chongqing Kang, Nikos Hatziargyriou

2026,14(1):23-36, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2025.000990

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Abstract:

This paper provides an overview of the application potential of artificial intelligence (AI) in power systems and points towards prospective developments in the fields of AI that are promised to play a transformative role in the evolution of power systems. Among the basic requirements, also imposed by regulation in some places, are trustworthiness and interpretability. Large language models, foundation models, as well as neuro-symbolic and compound AI models, appear to be the most promising emerging AI paradigms. Finally, the trajectories along which the future of AI in power systems might evolve are discussed, and conclusions are drawn.
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A Brief History of Application of Artificial Intelligence to Power Systems

Chen-Ching Liu, Anjan Bose

2026,14(1):1-6, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2025.001004

Abstract: (229) HTML (54) PDF (471.22 KKB) (409)

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This paper tries to summarize the attempts to apply artificial intelligence (AI) to power systems, particularly power system planning and operations which require significant computer analysis. Although the term AI was coined earlier, this paper considers the beginning to be in the 1980s when the first expert systems were applied to power engineering. Of course, many of the analytical techniques applied can be traced to earlier statistical analysis and pattern recognition. The concept of expert systems was very much in line with the concept of AI. The various methods for applying AI to power systems are traced here. The historical journey in this paper closes with the great explosion of AI applications in the last decade when almost all power system analysis is trying to utilize AI techniques to help the transformation of the power system into a more efficient and carbon-free system. This proliferation of research in the application of AI is covered in the other papers in this series.
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Smart Grid Origins, Definitions, Technologies, and Emerging Trends: A Power Community Perspective

Om Malik, Jay Liu, Marcelo Simões, Chris Dent, Kai Strunz, Jeffrey Wischkaemper, Vladimiro Miranda, Trevor Gaunt, Math Bollen, Mladen Kezunovic, Daniel Kirschen, Antonio Gomez-Exposito, Robin Podmore, Harold Kirkham, Panayiotis Moutis, Anjan Bose, Ian Hiskens, Gene Preston, Canbing Li, Hasala Dharmawardena, Alexandra von Meier, Leigh Tesfatsion, Paulo Ribeiro

2025,13(6):1845-1853, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2025.000807

Abstract: (228) HTML (67) PDF (38.24 KKB) (344)

Abstract:

This paper captures an engaging— and at times heated—Power-Globe (PG) discussion of evolving definitions of smart grid technologies. The exchange took place between December 2024 and January 2025. The primary objective of this paper is to clarify some of the ambiguities surrounding the term “ smart grid” over the past two decades, as highlighted in the spirited PG debate. “ Smart grid” has sometimes been advocated as a panacea to resolve the tension between competing objectives for the provision of electricity (specifically, making it reliable, clean, and affordable). This paper examines the term “ smart grid” in terms of raw technical functionalities, applications, and use cases, some of which may get closer than others to meeting the aspirational promises. While smart technology should expand our menu of options, it will not absolve us of the need to make hard decisions.
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Revisiting Capacity Value of Variable Renewable Energy Generation in Power Systems with High Renewable Energy Penetration

Yanghao Yu, Haiyang Jiang, Ning Zhang, Pei Yong, Fei Teng, Jiawei Zhang, Yating Wang, Goran Strbac

2025,13(5):1593-1603, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.001101

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Adequacy is a key concern of power system planning, which refers to the availability of sufficient facilities to meet demand. The capacity value (CV) of variable renewable energy (VRE) generation represents its equivalent contribution to system adequacy, in comparison to conventional generators. While VRE continues to grow and increasingly dominates the generation portfolio, its CV is becoming non-negligible, with the corresponding impact mechanisms becoming more complicated and nuanced. In this paper, the concept of CV is revisited by analyzing how VRE contributes to power system balancing at a high renewable energy penetration level. A generalized loss function is incorporated into the CV evaluation framework considering the adequacy of the power system. An analytical method for the CV evaluation of VRE is then derived using the statistical properties of both hourly load and VRE generation. Through the explicit CV expression, several critical impact factors, including the VRE generation variance, source-load correlation, and system adequacy level, are identified and discussed. Case studies demonstrate the accuracy and effectiveness of the proposed method in comparison to the traditional capacity factor-based methods and convolution-based methods. In the IEEE-RTS79 test system, the CV of a 2500 MW wind farm (with 40% renewable energy penetration level) is found to be 6.8% of its nameplate capacity. Additionally, the sensitivity of CV to various impact factors in power systems with high renewable energy penetration is analyzed.
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Reducing Blackout Risk by Segmenting European Power Grid with HVDC Lines

Damià Gomila, Benjamín A. Carreras, José-Miguel Reynolds-Barredo, María Martínez-Barbeito, Pere Colet, Oriol Gomis-Bellmunt

2025,13(5):1556-1567, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000768

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Abstract:

The utilization of high-voltage direct current (HVDC) lines for the segmentation of the European power grid has been demonstrated to be a highly effective strategy for the mitigation of the risk of cascading blackouts. In this study, an accurate and efficient method for determining the optimal power flow through HVDC lines is presented, with the objective of minimizing load shedding. The proposed method is applied to two distinct scenarios: first, the segmentation of the power grid along the Pyrenees, with the objective of segmenting the Iberian Peninsula from the rest of Europe; and second, the segmentation of the power grid into Eastern and Western Europe, approximately in half. In both scenarios, the method effectively reduces the size of blackouts impacting both sides of the HVDC lines, resulting in a 46% and 67% reduction in total blackout risk, respectively. Furthermore, we have estimated the cost savings from risk reduction and the expenses associated with converting conventional lines to HVDC lines. Our findings indicate that segmenting the European power grid with HVDC lines is economically viable, particularly for segmenting the Iberian Peninsula, due to its favorable cost-risk reduction ratio.
1
Co-optimization of Carbon Reduction and Carbon Sequestration in Power Sector Toward Carbon Neutrality

Mingyu Yang, Yusheng Xue, Bin Cai, Feng Xue

2025,13(5):1481-1494, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.001135

Abstract: (207) HTML (76) PDF (1.79 MKB) (363)

Abstract:

Planning the low-carbon transition pathway of the power sector to meet the carbon neutrality goal poses a significant challenge due to the complex interplay of temporal, spatial, and cross-domain factors. A novel framework is proposed, grounded in the cyber-physical-social system in energy (CPSSE) and whole-reductionism thinking (WRT), incorporating a tailored mathematical model and optimization method to formalize the co-optimization of carbon reduction and carbon sequestration in the power sector. Using the carbon peaking and carbon neutrality transition of China as a case study, clustering method is employed to construct a diverse set of strategically distinct carbon trajectories. For each trajectory, the evolution of the generation mix and the deployment pathways of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies are analyzed, identifying the optimal transition pathway based on the criterion of minimizing cumulative economic costs. Further, by comparing non-fossil energy substitution and CCS retrofitting in thermal power, the analysis highlights the potential for co-optimization of carbon reduction and carbon sequestration. The results demonstrate that leveraging the spatiotemporal complementarities between the two can substantially lower the economic cost of achieving carbon neutrality, providing insights for integrated decarbonization strategies in power system planning.
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Evolving Symbolic Model for Dynamic Security Assessment in Power Systems

Francisco S. Fernandes, Ricardo J. Bessa, João Peças Lopes

2025,13(4):1113-1126, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000478

Abstract: (189) HTML (101) PDF (1.44 MKB) (338)

Abstract:

In a high-risk sector, such as power system, transparency and interpretability are key principles for effectively deploying artificial intelligence (AI) in control rooms. Therefore, this paper proposes a novel methodology, the evolving symbolic model (ESM), which is dedicated to generating highly interpretable data-driven models for dynamic security assessment (DSA), namely in system security classification (SC) and the definition of preventive control actions. The ESM uses simulated annealing for a data-driven evolution of a symbolic model template, enabling different cooperative learning schemes between humans and AI. The Madeira Island power system is used to validate the application of the ESM for DSA. The results show that the ESM has a classification accuracy comparable to pruned decision trees (DTs) while boasting higher global interpretability. Moreover, the ESM outperforms an operator-defined expert system and an artificial neural network in defining preventive control actions.
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Compound Compensation Control for Improving Low-voltage Ride-through Capability of Virtual Synchronous Generators

Zhiyuan Meng, Xiangyang Xing, Xiangjun Li, Jiadong Sun

2025,13(3):1064-1077, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000404

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The virtual synchronous generator (VSG), utilized as a control strategy for grid-forming inverters, is an effective method of providing inertia and voltage support to the grid. However, the VSG exhibits limited capabilities in low-voltage ride-through (LVRT) mode. Specifically，the slow response of the power loop poses challenges for VSG in grid voltage support and increases the risk of overcurrent, potentially violating present grid codes. This paper reveals the mechanism behind the delayed response speed of VSG control during the grid faults. On this basis, a compound compensation control strategy is proposed for improving the LVRT capability of the VSG, which incorporates adaptive frequency feedforward compensation (AFFC), direct power angle compensation (DPAC), internal potential compensation (IPC), and transient virtual impedance (TVI), effectively expediting the response speed and reducing transient current. Furthermore, the proposed control strategy ensures that the VSG operates smoothly back to its normal control state following the restoration from the grid faults. Subsequently, a large-signal model is developed to facilitate parameter design and stability analysis, which incorporates grid codes and TVI. Finally, the small-signal stability analysis and simulation and experimental results prove the correctness of the theoretical analysis and the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy.
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Multi-time-scale Optimal Scheduling of Integrated Energy System with Electric-thermal-hydrogen Hybrid Energy Storage Under Wind and Solar Uncertainties

Zhe Chen, Zhihao Li, Da Lin, Changjun Xie, Zhewei Wang

2025,13(3):904-914, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000606

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Hybrid energy storage is considered as an effective means to improve the economic and environmental performance of integrated energy systems (IESs). Although the optimal scheduling of IES has been widely studied, few studies have taken into account the property that the uncertainty of the forecasting error decreases with the shortening of the forecasting time scale. Combined with hybrid energy storage, the comprehensive use of various uncertainty optimization methods under different time scales will be promising. This paper proposes a multi-time-scale optimal scheduling method for an IES with hybrid energy storage under wind and solar uncertainties. Firstly, the proposed system framework of an IES including electric-thermal-hydrogen hybrid energy storage is established. Then, an hour-level robust optimization based on budget uncertainty set is performed for the day-ahead stage. On this basis, a scenario-based stochastic optimization is carried out for intra-day and real-time stages with time intervals of 15 min and 5 min, respectively. The results show that ① the proposed method improves the economic benefits, and the intra-day and real-time scheduling costs are reduced, respectively; ② by adjusting the uncertainty budget in the model, a flexible balance between economic efficiency and robustness in day-ahead scheduling can be achieved; ③ reasonable design of the capacity of electric-thermal-hydrogen hybrid energy storage can significantly reduce the electricity curtailment rate and carbon emissions, thus reducing the cost of system scheduling.
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Fault Detection, Classification, and Location Based on Empirical Wavelet Transform-Teager Energy Operator and ANN for Hybrid Transmission Lines in VSC-HVDC Systems

Jalal Sahebkar Farkhani, Özgür Çelik, Kaiqi Ma, Claus Leth Bak, Zhe Chen

2025,13(3):840-851, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2023.000925

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Traditional protection methods are not suitable for hybrid (cable and overhead) transmission lines in voltage source converter based high-voltage direct current (VSC-HVDC) systems. Accordingly, this paper presents the robust fault detection, classification, and location based on the empirical wavelet transform-Teager energy operator (EWT-TEO) and artificial neural network (ANN) for hybrid transmission lines in VSC-HVDC systems. The operational scheme of the proposed protection method consists of two loops ① an EWT-TEO based feature extraction loop, ② and an ANN-based fault detection, classification, and location loop. Under the proposed protection method, the voltage and current signals are decomposed into several sub-passbands with low and high frequencies using the empirical wavelet transform (EWT) method. The energy content extracted by the EWT is fed into the ANN for fault detection, classification, and location. Various fault cases, including the high-impedance fault (HIF) as well as noises, are performed to train the ANN with two hidden layers. The test system and signal decomposition are conducted by PSCAD/EMTDC and MATLAB, respectively. The performance of the proposed protection method is compared with that of the traditional non-pilot traveling wave (TW) based protection method. The results confirm the high accuracy of the proposed protection method for hybrid transmission lines in VSC-HVDC systems, where a mean percentage error of approximately 0.1% is achieved.
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Smallest Eigenvalues Based Logarithmic Derivative Method for Computing Dominant Oscillation Modes in Large-scale Power Systems

Linguang Wang, Xiaorong Xie, Wenkai Dong, Yong Mei, Aoyu Lei

2025,13(3):747-756, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000630

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Abstract:

With the rapid integration of renewable energy, wide-band oscillations caused by interactions between power electronic equipment and grids have emerged as one of the most critical stability issues. Existing methods are usually studied for local power systems with around one hundred nodes. However, for a large-scale power system with tens of thousands of nodes, the dimension of transfer function matrix or the order of characteristic equation is much higher. In this case, the existing methods such as eigenvalue analysis method and impedance-based method have difficulty in computation and are thus hard to utilize in practice. To fill this gap, this paper proposes a novel method named the smallest eigenvalues based logarithmic derivative (SELD) method. It obtains the dominant oscillation modes by the logarithmic derivative of the k-smallest eigenvalue curves of the sparse extended nodal admittance matrix (NAM). An oscillatory stability analysis tool is further developed based on this method. The effectiveness of the method and the tool is validated through a local power system as well as a large-scale power system.
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Multi-temporal Optimization of Virtual Power Plant in Energy-frequency Regulation Market Under Uncertainties

Wenping Qin, Xiaozhou Li, Xing Jing, Zhilong Zhu, Ruipeng Lu, Xiaoqing Han

2025,13(2):675-687, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000118

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Abstract:

The virtual power plant (VPP) facilitates the coordinated optimization of diverse forms of electrical energy through the aggregation and control of distributed energy resources (DERs), offering as a potential resource for frequency regulation to enhance the power system flexibility. To fully exploit the flexibility of DER and enhance the revenue of VPP, this paper proposes a multi-temporal optimization strategy of VPP in the energy-frequency regulation (EFR) market under the uncertainties of wind power (WP), photovoltaic (PV), and market price. Firstly, all schedulable electric vehicles (EVs) are aggregated into an electric vehicle cluster (EVC), and the schedulable domain evaluation model of EVC is established. A day-ahead energy bidding model based on Stackelberg game is also established for VPP and EVC. Secondly, on this basis, the multi-temporal optimization model of VPP in the EFR market is proposed. To manage risks stemming from the uncertainties of WP, PV, and market price, the concept of conditional value at risk (CVaR) is integrated into the strategy, effectively balancing the bidding benefits and associated risks. Finally, the results based on operational data from a provincial electricity market demonstrate that the proposed strategy enhances comprehensive revenue by providing frequency regulation services and encouraging EV response scheduling.
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Consideration on Present and Future of Battery Energy Storage System to Unlock Battery Value

Ji-Soo Kim, Jin-Sol Song, Chul-Hwan Kim, Jean Mahseredjian, Seung-Ho Kim

2025,13(2):622-636, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2023.000723

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Abstract:

To address environmental concerns, there has been a rapid global surge in integrating renewable energy sources into power grids. However, this transition poses challenges to grid stability. A prominent solution to this challenge is the adoption of battery energy storage systems (BESSs). Many countries are actively increasing BESS deployment and developing new BESS technologies. Nevertheless, a crucial initial step is conducting a comprehensive analysis of BESS capabilities and subsequently formulating policies. We analyze the current roles of BESS and review existing BESS policies worldwide, which focuses on key markets in Asia, Europe, and the U.S.. Using collected survey data, we propose a comprehensive three-phase framework for policy formulation, providing insights into future policy development directions.
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A Mix-integer Programming Based Deep Reinforcement Learning Framework for Optimal Dispatch of Energy Storage System in Distribution Networks

Shengren Hou, Edgar Mauricio Salazar, Peter Palensky, Qixin Chen, Pedro P. Vergara

2025,13(2):597-608, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000391

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Abstract:

The optimal dispatch of energy storage systems (ESSs) in distribution networks poses significant challenges, primarily due to uncertainties of dynamic pricing, fluctuating demand, and the variability inherent in renewable energy sources. By exploiting the generalization capabilities of deep neural networks (DNNs), the deep reinforcement learning (DRL) algorithms can learn good-quality control models that adapt to the stochastic nature of distribution networks. Nevertheless, the practical deployment of DRL algorithms is often hampered by their limited capacity for satisfying operational constraints in real time, which is a crucial requirement for ensuring the reliability and feasibility of control actions during online operations. This paper introduces an innovative framework, named mixed-integer programming based deep reinforcement learning (MIP-DRL), to overcome these limitations. The proposed MIP-DRL framework can rigorously enforce operational constraints for the optimal dispatch of ESSs during the online execution. This framework involves training a Q-function with DNNs, which is subsequently represented in a mixed-integer programming (MIP) formulation. This unique combination allows for the seamless integration of operational constraints into the decision-making process. The effectiveness of the proposed MIP-DRL framework is validated through numerical simulations, demonstrating its superior capability to enforce all operational constraints and achieve high-quality dispatch decisions and showing its advantage over existing DRL algorithms.
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DR-MMC Hub Based Hybrid AC/DC Collection and HVDC Transmission System for Large-scale Offshore Wind Farms

Wang Xiang, Mingrui Yang, Jinyu Wen

2025,13(2):452-461, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000229

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Abstract:

Conventional offshore wind farm (OWF) integration systems typically employ AC cables to gather power to a modular multilevel converter (MMC) platform, subsequently delivering it to onshore grids through high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission. However, scaling up the capacity of OWFs introduces significant challenges due to the high costs associated with AC collection cables and offshore MMC platforms. This paper proposes a diode rectifier (DR)-MMC hub based hybrid AC/DC collection and HVDC transmission system for large-scale offshore wind farms. The wind farms in proximity to the offshore converter platform utilize AC collection, while distant wind farms connect to the platform using DC collection. The combined AC/DC power is then transmitted to the offshore DR-MMC hub platform. The topology and operation principle of the DR-MMC hub as well as the integration system are presented. Based on the operational characteristics, the capacity design method for DR-MMC hub is proposed. And the control and startup strategies of the integration system are designed. Furthermore, an economic comparison with the conventional MMC-HVDC based offshore wind power integration system is conducted. Finally, the technical feasibility of the proposed integration scheme is verified through PSCAD/EMTDC simulation with the integration scale of 2 GW.
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Two-stage Optimal Scheduling of Community Integrated Energy System Considering Operation Sequences of Hydrogen Energy Storage Systems

Wei Kong, Kai Sun, Jinghong Zhao

2025,13(1):276-288, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2023.001027

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Abstract:

The hydrogen energy storage system (HESS) integrated with renewable energy power generation exhibits low reliability and flexibility under source-load uncertainty. To address the above issues, a two-stage optimal scheduling model considering the operation sequences of HESSs is proposed for commercial community integrated energy systems (CIESs) with power to hydrogen and heat (P2HH) capability. It aims to optimize the energy flow of HESS and improve the flexibility of hydrogen production and the reliability of energy supply for loads. First, the refined operation model of HESS is established, and its operation model is linearized according to the operation domain of HESS, which simplifies the difficulty of solving the optimization problem under the premise of maintaining high approximate accuracy. Next, considering the flexible start-stop of alkaline electrolyzer (AEL) and the avoidance of multiple energy conversions, the operation sequences of HESS are formulated. Finally, a two-stage optimal scheduling model combining day-ahead economic optimization and intra-day rolling optimization is established, and the model is simulated and verified using the source-load prediction data of typical days in each season. The simulation results show that the two-stage optimal scheduling reduces the total load offset by about 14% while maintaining similar operating cost to the optimal day-ahead economic optimization scheduling. Furthermore, by formulating the operation sequences of HESS, the operating cost of CIES is reduced by up to about 4.4%.
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Matching Synchronous Machine Control for Improving Active Support of Grid-forming PV Systems with Enhanced DC Voltage Dynamics

Zizhen Guo, Wenchuan Wu

2025,13(1):179-189, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2023.000624

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Abstract:

With photovoltaic (PV) sources becoming more prevalent in the energy generation mix, transitioning grid-connected PV systems from grid-following (GFL) mode to grid-forming (GFM) mode becomes essential for offering self-synchronization and active support services. Although numerous GFM methods have been proposed, the potential of DC voltage control malfunction during the provision of the primary and inertia support in a GFM PV system remains insufficiently researched. To fill the gap, some main GFM methods have been integrated into PV systems featuring detailed DC source dynamics. We conduct a comparative analysis of their performance in active support and DC voltage regulation. AC GFM methods such as virtual synchronous machine (VSM) face a significant risk of DC voltage failure in situations like alterations in solar radiation, leading to PV system tripping and jeopardizing local system operation. In the case of DC GFM methods such as matching control (MC), the active support falls short due to the absence of an accurate and dispatchable droop response. To address the issue, a matching synchronous machine (MSM) control method is developed to provide dispatchable active support and enhance the DC voltage dynamics by integrating the MC and VSM control loops. The active support capability of the PV systems with the proposed method is quantified analytically and verified by numerical simulations and field tests.
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A Systematic Small-signal Analysis Procedure for Improving Synchronization Stability of Grid-forming Virtual Synchronous Generators

Francisco Jesús Matas-Díaz, Manuel Barragán-Villarejo, José María Maza-Ortega

2025,13(1):102-114, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000316

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Abstract:

The integration of converter-interfaced generators (CIGs) into power systems is rapidly replacing traditional synchronous machines. To ensure the security of power supply, modern power systems require the application of grid-forming technologies. This study presents a systematic small-signal analysis procedure to assess the synchronization stability of grid-forming virtual synchronous generators (VSGs) considering the power system characteristics. Specifically, this procedure offers guidance in tuning controller gains to enhance stability. It is applied to six different grid-forming VSGs and experimentally tested to validate the theoretical analysis. This study concludes with key findings and a discussion on the suitability of the analyzed grid-forming VSGs based on the power system characteristics.
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Proportion of Grid-forming Wind Turbines in Hybrid GFM-GFL Offshore Wind Farms Integrated with Diode Rectifier Unit Based HVDC System

Yanqiu Jin, Zheren Zhang, Zheng Xu

2025,13(1):87-101, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000432

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Abstract:

This study analyzes the stability and reactive characteristics of the hybrid offshore wind farm that includes grid-forming (GFM) and grid-following (GFL) wind turbines (WTs) integrated with a diode rectifier unit (DRU) based high-voltage direct current (HVDC) system. The determination method for the proportion of GFM WTs is proposed while considering system stability and optimal offshore reactive power constraints. First, the small-signal stability is studied based on the developed linear model, and crucial factors that affect the stability are captured by eigenvalue analysis. The reactive power-frequency compensation control of GFM WTs is then proposed to improve the reactive power and frequency dynamics. Second, the relationship between offshore reactive power imbalance and the effectiveness of GFM capability is analyzed. Offshore reactive power optimization methods are next proposed to diminish offshore reactive load. These methods include the optimal design for the reactive capacity of the AC filter and the reactive power compensation control of GFL WTs. Third, in terms of stability and optimal offshore reactive power constraints, the principle and calculation method for determining the proportion of GFM WTs are proposed, and the critical proportion of GFM WTs is determined over the full active power range. Finally, case studies using a detailed model are conducted by time-domain simulations in PSCAD/EMTDC. The simulations verify the theoretical analysis results and the effectiveness of the proposed determination method for the proportion of GFM WTs and reactive power optimization methods.
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Safe Reinforcement Learning for Grid-forming Inverter Based Frequency Regulation with Stability Guarantee

Hang Shuai, Buxin She, Jinning Wang, Fangxing Li

2025,13(1):79-86, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2023.000882

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Abstract:

This study investigates a safe reinforcement learning algorithm for grid-forming (GFM) inverter based frequency regulation. To guarantee the stability of the inverter-based resource (IBR) system under the learned control policy, a model-based reinforcement learning (MBRL) algorithm is combined with Lyapunov approach, which determines the safe region of states and actions. To obtain near optimal control policy, the control performance is safely improved by approximate dynamic programming (ADP) using data sampled from the region of attraction (ROA). Moreover, to enhance the control robustness against parameter uncertainty in the inverter, a Gaussian process (GP) model is adopted by the proposed algorithm to effectively learn system dynamics from measurements. Numerical simulations validate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.
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DC Voltage Control with Grid-forming Capability for Enhancing Stability of HVDC System

Ghazala Shafique, Johan Boukhenfouf, François Gruson, Frédéric Colas, Xavier Guillaud

2025,13(1):66-78, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000822

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Abstract:

Grid-forming (GFM) converters are recognized for their stabilizing effects in renewable energy systems. Integrating GFM converters into high-voltage direct current (HVDC) systems requires DC voltage control. However, there can be a conflict between GFM converter and DC voltage control when they are used in combination. This paper presents a rigorous control design for a GFM converter that connects the DC-link voltage to the power angle of the converter, thereby integrating DC voltage control with GFM capability. The proposed control is validated through small-signal and transient-stability analyses on a modular multilevel converter (MMC)-based HVDC system with a point-to-point (P2P) GFM-GFM configuration. The results demonstrate that employing a GFM-GFM configuration with the proposed control enhances the stability of the AC system to which it is connected. The system exhibits low sensitivity to grid strength and can sustain islanding conditions. The high stability limit of the system with varying grid strength using the proposed control is validated using a system with four voltage source converters.
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Grid Strength Assessment Method for Evaluating Small-signal Synchronization Stability of Grid-following and Grid-forming Converters Integrated Systems

Qianhong Shi, Wei Dong, Guanzhong Wang, Junchao Ma, Chenxu Wang, Xianye Guo, Vladimir Terzija

2025,13(1):55-65, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000759

Abstract: (187) HTML (123) PDF (4.23 MKB) (1111)

Abstract:

Oscillations caused by small-signal instability have been widely observed in AC grids with grid-following (GFL) and grid-forming (GFM) converters. The generalized short-circuit ratio is commonly used to assess the strength of GFL converters when integrated with weak AC systems at risk of oscillation. This paper provides the grid strength assessment method to evaluate the small-signal synchronization stability of GFL and GFM converters integrated systems. First, the admittance and impedance matrices of the GFL and GFM converters are analyzed to identify the frequency bands associated with negative damping in oscillation modes dominated by heterogeneous synchronization control. Secondly, based on the interaction rules between the short-circuit ratio and the different oscillation modes, an equivalent circuit is proposed to simplify the grid strength assessment through the topological transformation of the AC grid. The risk of sub-synchronization and low-frequency oscillations, influenced by GFL and GFM converters, is then reformulated as a semi-definite programming (SDP) model, incorporating the node admittance matrix and grid-connected device capacities. The effectiveness of the proposed method is demonstrated through a case analysis.
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Hybrid Frequency-domain Modeling and Stability Analysis for Power Systems with Grid-following and Grid-forming Converters

Ni Liu, Hong Wang, Weihua Zhou, Jie Song, Yiting Zhang, Eduardo Prieto-Araujo, Zhe Chen

2025,13(1):15-28, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2023.000842

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Abstract:

With the increase of the renewable energy generator capacity, the requirements of the power system for grid-connected converters are evolve, which leads to diverse control schemes and increased complexity of systematic stability analysis. Although various frequency-domain models are developed to identify oscillation causes, the discrepancies between them are rarely studied. This study aims to clarify these discrepancies and provide circuit insights for stability analysis by using different frequency-domain models. This study emphasizes the limitations of assuming that the transfer function of the self-stable converter does not have right half-plane (RHP) poles. To ensure that the self-stable converters are represented by a frequency-domain model without RHP poles, the applicability of this model of grid-following (GFL) and grid-forming (GFM) converters is discussed. This study recommends that the GFM converters with ideal sources should be represented in parallel with the P / Q - θ / V admittance model rather than the V - I impedance model. Two cases are conducted to illustrate the rationality of the P / Q - θ / V admittance model. Additionally, a hybrid frequency-domain modeling framework and stability criteria are proposed for the power system with several GFL and GFM converters. The stability criteria eliminates the need to check the RHP pole numbers in the non-passive subsystem when applying the Nyquist stability criterion, thereby reducing the complexity of stability analysis. Simulations are carried out to validate the correctness of the frequency-domain model and the stability criteria.
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Dynamic Analysis of Uniformity and Difference for Grid-following and Grid-forming Voltage Source Converters Using Phasor and Topological Homology Methods

Haiyu Zhao, Hongyu Zhou, Wei Yao, Qihang Zong, Jinyu Wen

2025,13(1):3-14, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2024.000722

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Abstract:

Grid-following voltage source converter (GFL-VSC) and grid-forming voltage source converter (GFM-VSC) have different dynamic characteristics for active power-frequency and reactive power-voltage supports of the power grid. This paper aims to clarify and recognize the difference between grid-following (GFL) and grid-forming (GFM) frequency-voltage support more intuitively and clearly. Firstly, the phasor model considering circuit constraints is established based on the port circuit equations of the converter. It is revealed that the voltage and active power linearly correspond to the horizontal and vertical axes in the phasor space referenced to the grid voltage phasor. Secondly, based on topological homology, GFL and GFM controls are transformed and mapped into different trajectories. The topological similarity of the characteristic curves for GFL and GFM controls is the essential cause of their uniformity. Based on the above model, it is indicated that GFL-VSC and GFM-VSC possess uniformity with regard to active power response, type of coupling, and phasor trajectory. They differ in synchronization, power coupling mechanisms, dynamics, and active power-voltage operation domain in the quasi-steady state. Case studies are undertaken on GFL-VSC and GFM-VSC integrated into a four-machine two-area system. Simulation results verify that the dynamic uniformity and difference of GFL-VSC and GFM-VSC are intuitively and comprehensively revealed.
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Towards Renewable-dominated Energy Systems: Role of Green Hydrogen

Sheng Chen, Jingchun Zhang, Zhinong Wei, Hao Cheng, Si Lv

2024,12(6):1697-1709, DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2023.000887

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Abstract:

Green hydrogen represents an important energy carrier for global decarbonization towards renewable-dominant energy systems. As a result, an escalating interdependency emerges between multi-energy vectors. Specifically, the coupling among power, natural gas, and hydrogen systems is strengthened as the injections of green hydrogen into natural gas pipelines. At the same time, the interaction between hydrogen and transportation systems would become indispensable with soaring penetrations of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. This paper provides a comprehensive review for the modeling and coordination of hydrogen-integrated energy systems. In particular, we analyze the role of green hydrogen in decarbonizing power, natural gas, and transportation systems. Finally, pressing research needs are summarized.
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